Astronomy 101 - Early History of Astronomy

Space science 101 - Early History of Astronomy Space science is humanitys most established science. Individuals have been looking into, attempting to clarify what they find in the sky presumably since the primary human-like cavern occupants existed. Theres a celebrated scene in the film 2001: A Space Odyssey, where a primate named Moonwatcher overviews the sky, taking in the sights and considering what he sees. Its possible that such creatures truly existed, attempting to comprehend the universe from their perspective. Ancient Astronomy Quick forward around 10,000 years to the hour of the main developments, and the most punctual space experts who previously made sense of how to utilize the sky. In certain societies, they were clerics, priestesses, and different elites who contemplated the development of divine bodies to decide ceremonies, festivities, and planting cycles. With their capacity to watch and even estimate heavenly occasions, these individuals held extraordinary force among their social orders. This is on the grounds that the sky stayed a secret to a great many people, and by and large, societies put their gods in the sky. Any individual who could make sense of the secrets of the sky (and the hallowed) must be pretty important.â Be that as it may, their perceptions were not actually logical. They were progressively viable, albeit to some degree utilized for ceremonial purposes. In certain civic establishments, individuals accepted that that divine items and their movements could predict their own fates. That conviction prompted the now-limited act of crystal gazing, which is a greater amount of an amusement than anything scientific.â The Greeks Lead the Way The old Greeks were among the first to begin creating hypotheses about what they found in the sky. Theres much proof that early Asian social orders likewise depended on the sky as a kind of schedule. Absolutely, guides and explorers utilized the places of the Sun, Moon, and stars to discover their way around the planet.â Perceptions of the Moon recommended that Earth, as well, was round. Individuals likewise accepted that Earth was the focal point of all creation. At the point when combined with the scholar Plato’s affirmation that the circle was the ideal geometrical shape, the Earth-focused perspective on the universe appeared to be a characteristic fit.â Numerous other early eyewitnesses accepted the sky were actually a goliath crystalline bowl curving over Earth. That view offered path to another thought, clarified by space expert Eudoxus and logician Aristotle in the fourth century BCE. They said the Sun, Moon, and planets held tight a lot of settling, concentric circles encompassing Earth. No one could see them, however something was holding up the divine items, and imperceptible settling balls were as acceptable a clarification as whatever else. Albeit supportive to antiquated individuals attempting to understand an obscure universe, this model didn't help in appropriately following the movements planets, the Moon, or stars as observed from Earths surface. In any case, with not many refinements, it remained the overwhelming logical perspective on the universe for another 600 years. The Ptolemaic Revolution in Astronomy In the Second Century BCE, Claudius Ptolemaeus (Ptolemy), a Roman stargazer working in Egypt, included his very own inquisitive innovation to the geocentric model of settling crystalline balls.â He said that the planets moved in impeccable circles made of something, connected to those ideal circles. All that stuffâ turned around Earth. He called these little circles epicycles and they were a significant (if incorrect) suspicion. While it wasn't right, his hypothesis could, at any rate, foresee the ways of the planets genuinely well. Ptolemys see remained the favored clarification for an additional fourteen centuries! The Copernican Revolution That all changed in the sixteenth century, when Nicolaus Copernicus, a Polish space expert feeling burnt out on the lumbering and loose nature of the Ptolemaic model, started taking a shot at his very own hypothesis. He thought there must be a superior method to clarify the apparent movements of planets and the Moon in the sky. He estimated that the Sun was at the focal point of the universe and Earth and different planets rotated around it. Appears to be sufficiently basic, and legitimate. Be that as it may, this thought clashed with the Holy Roman churchs thought (which was to a great extent dependent on the flawlessness of Ptolemys hypothesis). Indeed, his thought raised him some ruckus. That is on the grounds that, in the Churchs view, mankind and its planet were consistently and just to be viewed as the focal point of all things. The Copernican thought downgraded Earth to something the Church didnt need to consider. Since it was the Church and had expected control over all inf ormation, it applied pressure where needed to get his thought discredited.â Be that as it may, Copernicus persevered. His model of the universe, while still wrong, did three primary things. It clarified the prograde and retrograde movements of the planets. It removed Earth from its spot as the focal point of the universe. What's more, it extended the size of the universe. In a geocentric model, the size of the universe is constrained with the goal that it can spin once at regular intervals, or, more than likely the stars would get threw off because of outward power. Along these lines, perhaps the Church feared in excess of a downgrade of our place known to mankind since a more profound comprehension of the universe was changing with Copernicuss ideas.â While it was a significant positive development, Copernicus’ hypotheses were still very unwieldy and loose. However, he prepared for additional logical comprehension. His book, On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Bodies, which was distributed as he lay on his deathbed, was a key component in the start of the Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment. In those hundreds of years, the logical idea of stargazing turned out to be staggeringly significant, alongside the development of telescopes to watch the sky. Those researchers added to the ascent of stargazing as a specific science that we know and depend upon today. Edited via Carolyn Collins Petersen.

Leadership Of President Bush And President Obama Politics Essay

Authority Of President Bush And President Obama Politics Essay The race for the leader of the United States has for quite a while stayed a pitched race for the democrats and the republicans who have kept on wrestling the workplace among them. With the two camps battling for the large seat, the guarantee of a superior America has been at the portion of the race for the votes. After each race for the administration, the oval office has had new inhabitant who has received explicit style of administration. Their dreams, desire and exhibitions have varied while others have continued as before. Taking a correlation of President Bush and president Obama, there are solid sign that their administration varies with Obama showing a change in outlook in treatment of issues which has kept on reinforcing his one of a kind presidential style therefore making a major differentiation from his forerunner; president Bush. Authority style The rising of President Bush into power as the leader of the United States clarified that an imperious pioneer had assumed control over the most noteworthy regulatory office in America. Directly from his acknowledgment discourse, President Bush certified the way that he had been the place the buck stops, both while in business and government (Denton, 109). In his residency as a president, President Bush exemplified his presidential style as a radical who had faith in assuming responsibility. Bramble accepted that only he was fit to set the motivation, the tone and the system (Burke, 108). By this token, president hedge made little association of the American populace yet rather trusted on his impulses and settled on choices dependent on what he accepted was correct concerning any issue that he was confronted with as a president. This kind of authority is a finished differentiation to president Obamas method of assuming responsibility for the government. Taking a gander at president Obama method of assuming responsibility as a president, it will be handily noticed that President Obama is a greater amount of a coordinator who advocates for vote based system as opposed to government. Obamas work at the workplace of the president has clarified that he is a superior coordinator who comprehends the network having a colossal feeling of social solidarity (Nielsen, 253). In contrast to his ancestor, Obama has come out as a president who has expanded the people groups association and contribution to the administration procedure. Obama has even made it workable for the development of obligation and activism that has created positive input from the electorate who presently feel that they are a piece of the legislature. This style of driving the administration withdraws from what Bush put stock in. For president Obama, an official authority was not a decision not to mention an alternative as America expected somebody to hold both the democrats a nd republican towards an aggregate long for change. Misleading and truthfulness President Bush residency was supposedly formed in misleading and genuineness with his inclusion in various issues in manners that were regarded as tricky and brimming with duplicity. It is greatly accepted that President Bush kept on meshing the misdirection into the American Fabric much like his forerunner like President Churchill (Lando 45). With claims that Iraq had under lock and key weapons of mass obliteration (WMD), President Bush marshaled the congress to help the war against Iraq just as accumulate support from its partners in Europe. Late on, it emerged that Iraq had no ownership of such weapons. Rather, the war was for obscure thought processes supported by the President as the UN investigators found no such weapons in Iraq (Rosecrance and Stein, 186). On the complexity, President Obamas remain in the workplace as a president as so far exhibited that he is without a doubt aware of keeping up trustworthiness instead of utilizing shrewdness to employ the help of the American Congress. To a few, the America issue is both generous and genuine (Genda, IX). To handle such issues president Obama has utilized an alternate methodology where the Americans are sharpened on the idea of issues confronting them and yet outfitting them with daringness of would like to wear out the difficulties and cause America to be what the individuals need it to be. With his aptitudes to verbalize himself with a reason and vision, Obama has overseen win the trust of the Americans (Leanne 21). Through the transparency that President Obama has so far grasped since his rise to control; all things considered, he will have the option to make a brought together America where the populace are bound along with reason against a typical test. This will without a doubt b e a noteworthy differentiation to President Bush specialty of keeping the electorate in obscurity while settling on choices which had national effect on the Americans. The battle against dread Fear based oppression has been one of the dangers that have kept on confronting the Americans both in the diaspora and at home. History demonstrates that the American has endured in the hand fear based oppressors. Thus, the leaders of the unified have done all under their capacity to guarantee the security of the American. Nonetheless, president Obamas approach has been unique in relation to that of president Obama in see with regards to how the issue of dread is dealt with. President Bush is notable for his remain against fear where he is by all accounts in concurrence with the documentation that the adversary was considered as meriting the evil and cruel treatment (Grosscup, 12). President Bush remain on the battle against psychological oppression caused him to assemble the American war apparatus to battle fear mongering both at home and abroad. Hedge ensured that strategies were instituted which reinforced measures against the psychological oppressors who were viewed as maniacal and pitiless. President Bush went further to take into account the turn of events and utilization of instruments in the capture and cross examination of fear suspects in territories, for example, Guantanamo straight. In this office, President Bush pushed the utilization of cross examination procedures, for example, waterboarding where suspects are set in recreation that they are suffocating (Welch et al. 440). This confinement camp was vigorously reprimanded for human rights i nfringement and therefore when Obama came into power; he has attempted to facilitate the utilization of such procedures in cross examination suspects. Also, president Obama has reported goal to close the detainment camp and utilize other successful ways to deal with battle dread. End Looking at or differentiating President Bush and President Obama is one of the most basic undertakings that appear to distract the Americas given that the present Obamas organization came into power through its guarantee of progress to benefit the American individuals. While it might be obscure to many, President Obamas shelf depended on change; change that could free the American from the missteps of the past while address the difficulties at the present. Obamas choices to sort out preferably that lead alone and open up rather over close himself in made has caused him to rise as a pioneer who represents earnestness and human rights not at all like President Bush.

An Essay on Globalism - Free Essay Example

INTRODUCTION In this essay, I attempt to defend the view that globalism is not a new concept but one that has been in existence since ancient Roman times.In recent years, there has been an increasing interest in the concept of globalism and it s time of existence a lot of study shows that globalism is been in existence from only 200 years ago, however Bruce Hitchner (2008) says that the globalization may have started 2,000 years ago.Globalism according to Saul (2005) is defined as the expansion into regional and into international from the local trade.However it s not only the expansion of local trade practices but also adopt their social and cultural ideals.Thus, this study provides an exciting opportunity to advance our knowledge of the globalism and how they have been in existence in roman empire.The main arguments for the essay will revolve around the existence of the system of Homo Sacer , the Trade routes and multiculturalism being in existence during roman period. TH ESIS This essay argues that the globalism was not just a modern concept though the term was coined just during the 1960 but the practice was in existence during the Roman times. They main arguments would revolve around the practices of the homo sacer, multiculturalism, trade routes ,neo liberalism, imperailism, democaratic globalism and knowledge transfer proving that globalism is not a new concept but one which has been in existence since the Roman empire. Globalism Globalism is described as a centuries long activity, tracing the expansion of human population and the growth of civilization ( Hingley ,2005). Even though the term globalism has been coined by economists since the 1980 ,globalism is a phenomenon with ancient roots (Hitchner,2008) .The Globalizations is said to been in existence from the third millenium B.C. . The early types of globalism can be seen in the cultural practices which are multiculturalism and knowledge transfer and education systems ,Trade practic es which are spice routes , silk routes which extended from China to the Roman empire, Military practices which is the Homo Sacer and Imperailism . The Roman empire integrated people, culture, technology and ideas on an unprecedented scale.Globalism, at its core, seeks to report and explain nothing more than a world which is specified by networks of connections that span multi-continental distances (Hitchner, 2008).Thus based on these points we ll move on to the arguments how the globalism was in existence in the Roman empire. Homo Sacer The Homo sacer is a concept which was in use during the ancient Roman times , it means life that cannot be sacrificed but only killed (Secor,2007) . The homo sacer is also means life abandoned by law . This does not infer the life not to be subjected by law but a life whic has been caught by law and is trapped by its power, which can seen as included exclusion.Gregory argues that the homo Sacer is also used now a days in the militant globalism for casting out . This kind of spatial contortion has been in existence in militant globalism for a long time. Casting out is defined as the the state which is also the same as homo sacri means placed in a space law of suspension (outside the law) (Secor , 2007). Example In the cases of Afghanistan ,Iraq ,Palestine the same characteristic performances are used in them the casting out means to be killed without any consequences while in Roman period homo Sacer means the person is not subjected to any rights which gives just a mere life not even worthy of Sacrifice and suspended by the law (Secor , 2007) . Homo sacer and Casting out means the same practices in differnet terms the only difference which can be found in them is they mean a person in the terms of a homo sacri and in casting out they mean a country to be exception to the law (Secor,2007).This is a form of militant globalism which is in practice by the US and UK administration. With this we can prove that militant globalis m was in practices roman times and not just in the latest political economy. Trade Practices The Romans had trade links made to many countries around them thus we can say the era of globalism begin with the roman empire (Hitchner, 2008) . Even though the Romans lacked the modern tools of globalism which are including world-wide communications systems, powerhouses , multi-national corporations and wire transfer for fast money transfer systems to transport currency, goods and people they may well be responsible for introducing the concept to the world ( Hingley, 2005). Market globalism is the concept of providing economic and cultural link throughout the world . The Romans had introduced the the concept of market globalism in these trade practices.For example the common Roman man lived and cooked with african oil and used th pots made in spain and also consumed bread cooked with raw materials got from egypt, and got the fish from the gibraltar. He used the dishes made in French kilns, drank wine got from France. The Roman of money costumed in garments of the wool from Miletus and the linen from Egypt; his wife will wore silks from China using the silk routes, enhanced herself with the pearls and diamonds from India, and made make-up with cosmetics from South Arabia.He will dwell in the houses whose walls are coated with colored marble drilled in Asia Minor; his own furnitures were made of Indian teak inlaid which were traded through the spice routes with African ivory (Jones 2008). They also had a high quality of pottery in the western empire. This pottery is constituted one type of material that passed throughout the empire through trade. The model for the production of terra sigillata was derived from Tuscany, the vessels manufactured in central and the southern areas of Gaul were traded to other provinces of Germany and Britain (hingley ,2005).There were also the existence of silk routes and spice routes between china and India respectively from the Ro man Empire.These trades routes are used to carry silk and spices from China and India (Jones,2008). Many of these trade practices were possible only because of the existence of the trade routes between the Romans and other countries. This can be seen as a form of economic globalism.The main point of globalism by Saul is defined as the trade between many countries which had been in existence and practiced by the Romans ,proving that globalism was in existence in Roman times. Multiculturalism There has been a huge advances in the concept of globalism in the past two decades . The important constituent to the globalism has been free information exchange and easy flow of capital (Jones 2008).Multiculturalism is the existence of many cultures with many of their traditions are existing independent without the support of any other culture (Epstein ,2009).The important prospects of globalism or multiculturalism is the prospect of having a single culture and the same Hollywood movies a nd Mc donalds adapting to local tastes with little variations in the world which mainly requires cultural tolerance with the people . The Romans also in the other hand existed with many cultures and had a greater amount of cultural tolerance to themselves ( Hitchner ,2008).This can be seen as a form of cultural Globalism.Thus these practices prove that the globalism has been in existence in the form of multiculturalism in roman period . Globalism and Imperialism The recent studies has shown that the globalism through imperialism is one of the important ways through which globalism has been happening. The imperialism is defined as the process of expanding the countries power and influence through colonization (Hingley ,2011).Thus the globalism can seen as a process of expansion of social and cultural ideas , so imperialism is also in a way helping globalism. The Bush s administration in America has seen as US imperialism in many ways trying to control and influence other countr ies through the militant globalism (Secor ,2005). The study of Roman Empire for imperialism becomes, not only a consideration but also a way to see how the Rome expanded across such a vast area, incorporating people along the way, also trying to put their culture among the colonies while controlling them (Hingley, 2005). The violent imposition of the new world order ,genocide ,deportation ,exploitation of the societies are the methods with which the countries and empire tried to control and enslave the people did miltary recruitment is by which imperialism was in existence during the roman and modern times (hingley,2005).This will want us to think critically about how the Roman empire expansion across such a vast territory and also the means by with the societies across the Roman world was held together which is an similar way through which the Bush s administration also did in Afghanistan ,Iraq (Secor,2005).This can been seen as a form of political globalism. Thus these things also helps us to see that globalism was a concept which was in existence during Roman empire. Globalism and Knowledge transfer Globalism has been a easy process because of the knowledge transfer between the people though the internet.Global historians such as Tony Hopkins and Christopher Bayly have also stressed the importance of the exchange of not only trade but also ideas and knowledge during periods of pre-modern globalization. A common roman child would learn Latin from the schools.Ambitious Jews and Gauls were taught to speak Latin in schools just as children in Jakarta and Sio Paulo from the middle-class learn English today ( Hitchner , 2008). The adoption of latin and writing of the common language has helped the people in two major areas they are a common language through which a knowledge transfer can occur and it bought the people closer because of the common language (Hingley 2005).For Example There were many authors in the first century BC, they mainly spoke about the ideas of being in relationship with the people and their ideas to be recorded to future references (Hingley , 2005). These ideas served to assist Western colonial adventurers, from the sixteenth century on wards, in understanding the exotic places that they explored. Thus the Romans had given a huge importance for the knowledge transfer and learning of languages leading to globalization (Hingley , 2005). Additionally, they also had a similar development in roman empire ,while columned temples and amphitheaters sprang up everywhere as office blocks and cinemas are springing up today in the cities (Jones 2008). Thus the importance given by the Romans for knowledge transfer and development which is also a important aspect of globalization is seen in day to day lives now.This can be seen as a form of cultural globalism. Thus proving that even though it was in a smaller scale but the start of the globalism has been since the Roman Empire. Neo Liberal Globalization The globalism ca n be defined as an end result which is being obtained by the process of neo liberalism (Kotz ,2000). There are many important concepts in neo liberalism they are free trade no restriction by the government in import and exports , deregulation the removal of laws which affect the trade practices ,privatization private enterprises doing the work done by the state owned enterprises (Kotz,2000) . In Rome the neo liberalism can be seen in mainly two practices they are Zetema and Bufalotta ( Violante Annunziata , 2011). The first one represents the quasi-autonomous non-governmental organization .The second one is an urban development project which is an exceptional procedure to the form the pact between the business community and the urban political elite ( Violante Annunziata , 2011).For Example The Bufalotta was the Private organisation that provided housing supply to the people in Rome in many neighborhoods. This is a form of privatization of government work which occurred in Rome ( Violante Annunziata , 2011).They are common practices in Rome for the welfare of the people in the empire leading to better trade and which is also a form of economic globalism.These practices show that neo liberalism in the roman community proving that globalism is in existence during the Roman era. Democratic Globalization Democratic Globalization can be defined as a institution of global democracy to the world that is giving a common say to all (Hardt , 2005). It s always known that democracy was a part of globalism which gives the citizens a chance to express their opinions .Rome had a extensive, powerful and well organized world-empire(hingley ,2005) .Rome is said to have a mixed constitution of all the three forms of governments which are monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy (hardt , 2005). While the first two represents the control of the empire by the ruler and control of the empire by a set of people . The third represents the people . The Roman empire is said to t he first one to implement the concept of democracy.The Roman empire had the simple concept of democracy they always assemble to take decisions and check the expenditure of the officials (Jones , 2008). ­Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ­Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ­ For Example They once found the great Pericles annually claiming the gigantic sum of ten talents for à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"expensesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. They turned a blind eye towards it because they believed him when he said he was using it to buy off their great rival Sparta. But the important point to be seen is that the people knew. It was their decision to approve or not (Jones 2008). Thus we can see that democracy which is a form of globalism has been implemented in the Roman empire proving that it has been in practices. Conclusion During the past two decades the globalism has been of huge importance and been a growing research in the field of business.Researchers have reported alarming findings in the field of globalism and its existence and practices d uring the pre historic era . The arguments in the essay are mainly based on the practices of Homo Sacer a process of militant globalism , Trade practices a method of economic globalism , multiculturalism a method of cultural globalism, Imperialism which is also a form of political globalism, Knowledge transfer in the pre historic era which is also a form of economic globalism ,these practices in the roman empire show that globalism is not a new concept but one which was found in the pre historic times .In addition to this a lot of research has been taking place in the field of globalism to find out more about the concept of globalism.

Bureaucracy An Invisible Empire - 717 Words

Hannah Bozzini Mr, Zinchuck Government February 9, 2016 Bureaucracy â€Å"The government, which was designed for the people, has got into the hands of the bosses and their employers, the special interests. An invisible empire has been set up above the forms of democracy.† This quote by Woodrow Wilson fits perfectly with the topics that will be discussed. The major theme of this paper is bureaucracy. Bureaucracy refers to an administrative system in which agencies staffed largely by non elected officials perform specific tasks in accordance with standard procedures. The work of the bureaucracy involves implementing laws and procedures. Does this sound familiar? That is because most bureaucrats work for the executive branch of the government. The executive branch is the one that enforces the laws. Some of these law enforcing jobs include mail clerk, police officer, fireman, and first responder. These jobs are essential to our lives as Americans and are greatly appreciated. This paper will expound on the history, usage, and the Cabinet The history of the bureaucracy dates back to when our country was first founded. George Washington and Thomas Jefferson set the bar for civil service. Washington knew that the people he appointed would be in important governmental positions, so he had to choose wisely. As time passed the system became more corrupted. Andrew Jackson gave government jobs to those who supported his campaign. After Andrew Jackson, the civil war was fought, thereforeShow MoreRelatedEssay on Nicholas Is Foreign Policy1474 Words   |  6 Pagessubjects (Rias, 324).† From that day froward the Emperor would put down a law by the name of â€Å"Official Nationality (Rias, 324).† To fully comprehend how and why Nicholas I chose to run his foreign policy the way he did, one must delve into how his Empire was run at home. Nicholas I was influenced heavily by Christianity. 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Jetblue Airlines The Biggest Airline - 1190 Words

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Audit Report of Lehman Brothers Leading Investment Banking Firms

Question: Discuss about the Audit Report of Lehman Brothers. Answer: Introduction: Lehman Brothers were one of the leading investment banking firms of U.S and was at the fourth number after Goldman Shacks, Morgan Stanley and Merrill Lynch. It went on for 158 years from 1850 to 2008 when it got shut and faced serious crisis at the time. This event left a mark in all the markets globally and lead to changes in many policies by the government. It also led to formation of ASA701 which included better auditing rules and all the reforms taking all the lessons from Lehman Brothers event. The event was sparked by undue negligence, financial crisis, mortgage crisis etc. and has been known as U.Ss largest bankruptcy till date. Lets look at all the points deeply in the assignment. Collapse of Lehman Brothers: Lehman Brothers Holdings Inc. was a firm which gave its financial services globally and on a large scale and thats why it was fourth in top investment banking firms in the U.S and dealing on a huge scale includes transactions worth millions which should be maintained and efficiently put into tests and audits with time. On September 15, 2008, the entity took a step to file Bankruptcy protection Chapter 11 which led to a chain of events from a disruption in its clients to massive losses in stock markets and even the assets were devalued by the rating agencies and that led to the collapse. Reasons for Bankruptcy Due to negligence of the auditors and carelessness what sparkled was U.Ss largest bankruptcy. It even uncovered the real reasons behind the financial crisis of late 2000s. After all the mess happening to the global markets Barclays announced its want to purchase the Lehman brothers Investment banking firm in U.S along with its new york headquarters and later on Nomura Holdings announced to buy Lehman brothers franchise in Asia-Pacific and also in Australia, Japan and Hong Kong. On 13th October same year the deal took place. At the time of bankruptcy Lehman Brothers had $639 billion in assets and $619 billion in debt and it left Word Com, Enron bankruptcies far behind. It had 25,000 workers working for the firm at that time. The subprime mortgage of U.S was the prime reason which nearly swept away the market in 2008. It led to erosion of $10 trillion dollars off the market cap of equity market. Markets went a maximum low point that following month. The firm was a small general store a t its starting and that led to a giant firm in the future and it went through a lot of depressions and even the two world wars. The three L(s) responsible: The depressions included railroad bankruptcy, 1930 great depression, Russian Debt default, Long term capital management collapse. We can see in its history that the firm had a lot of potential and survived a lot but the depression following 2000s hit it the worst and brought it to its knees. The Lehman Brothers playing at a large scale could not be underestimated but collapsed due to failure in being rescued from a government bailout. The whole event was a blast for the whole industry because the first thing that the amount to be administered was $600 billion huge and was nothing that the government has ever faced and it was a company which was widely spread due to a web of companies and that made everything very complex and unlike Enrons bankruptcy in 2001. The Lehman brothers failed because of some reasons. Now leverage played a big role in the failure starting from what leverage is then leverage is when you gear up in the good times which means that you borrow money from sources a nd then invest it in the places or assets which are giving good returns and that will magnify the gains by multiples. The average well maintained banks keep a leverage of 12 times which basically if explained means that for every $1 the bank can give a loan of $12 and if your assets are increasing then the gains will increase to its multiple but if they start falling the loss is going to be in multiples. Lehman brothers Inc. has a leverage of 44 at its extreme and which rose from 20 to 30 to 40 and then the extreme happened and which means if a person of $1000 wage had to buy house using $44000 mortgage. Due to that the borrowers were always in a fear of falling property price and increasing interests and the company was stuck in the same tornado. The man thing which lacked was not the lack of profits but the severe lack of cash. It was right that Lehman brothers started to face some serious liquidity issues and it lacked quick assets which meant that the assets which could be realised in very less time though it had a very impressive capital base and assets, liabilities volumes. As the whole market was feeling the crisis and other banks also realised what the company was going through and they then ceased all the lines of credits for the company to save themselves and that was the main reason for the collapse of any bank which is when they lose market confidence which means that the y have no market left to trade and do business with and the existence ceased because nobody could see the future of the company. Rivals and Financial Exposure Only several months ago the competent Bear Sterns faced the same crisis before JP Morgan Chase came to its rescue and helped it through its lack of liquidity. After the terrorists attacks in 2001 the market of properties commercial as well as residential saw a rise for 6 years and that because of the decreasing interest rates. In the three years before 2006 the market already started to fall and the point that Lehman Brothers was hugely exposed to the property market having around $61 billion worth commercial properties and as well as providing sub-prime mortgages which were loans given to families to buy houses having poor financial records in the past. It also had a lot of investments in Credit Default Swaps and Collateralized Debt Obligations in the same sector. As now the properties had started to crash and all the investments were devalued and it faced a loss of $6.1 billion due to that because it was caught somewhere which was impossible to get out of because prices of property crashed and arrears started to take place. The company had a long history of more than 150 years and that too as a NYSE giant for more than 15 years which was very impressive. So, at that time of the depression, rival companies like Merrill Lynch, Bear Sterns also faced the problems but survived because they had someone to buy the firm like JP Morgan to Bear Sterns rescue. At the time of depression Lehman Brothers were one of American Banks interests but because of Merrill Lynchs deal finalising before the chance failed and even Barclay wanted to buy Lehman brothers but failed because the U.K government blocked the way to invest into Lehman Brothers under some regulations and its marked in the books by the owners as a historic point known to be when Britain government destroyed Lehmans future. As the financials of the company were a mess so there last resort to borrow an emergency loan from the feds failed because their calculations predicted losses and even less collateral to honour the loan and even if they had received the loan it was impossible for the company to revive. At the end of the situation the public was already disturbed and frustrated from the financial markets and the idea of the feds rescuing a company like Lehman Brother and then putting losses of millions and billions on the name of taxpayers didnt entertain them and they couldnt be possibly revived and seeing a potential buyer the deal was done resulting in the sale of bank to another bank and losing everything and failing. Due to the leverage, point where the company has nearly no liquidity, losses, messed up balance sheet and no buyer ready to rescue the company it failed. Whom did it affect? This failure would have affected the population as a whole of U.S in indirect way but all of the burden was to be directly put on the institutional investors and the people who help the stocks and as a cherry on the top many of its products in insurance were spread and working around the wall street. The failure of the company made the public and the government realise what bad they did to the economy letting a giant company like that to fall and the whole global economy joined in the movement to bailout banks in their countries taking a lesson and U.S couldnt afford to lose another bank of this size. The drastic event for the whole global economy forced each and every company to take a lesson and change all the regulations regarding the auditing and that gave rose to ASA701 as a step by the government to save the existing companies from a failure due to reaching a circumstance like Lehman Brothers were caught into. The problem behind was that the feds didnt give any explanation for the bailout of the Lehman brothers. The feds kept silence and it was misunderstood by the investors and the public. The solution to that would be if the government provide a real and very clear reason behind not bailing out or bailing out of any organization according to the statue provided by the government. No one could have imagined that the government has to rescue any non-banking firm and the rule didnt exist till then so what government should have done was that to have adapted to new things in the market and provide regulations according to that. With the ASA701 the scope broadened in communicating the key audit matters. ASA 701 and improvements The scope of the standard included the significance of the above mentioned, the matters which should be stated and the matters auditors had most robust with to be communicated, the communication between both the parties would improve, and the assumptions about users of financial reports. Elements of the Auditors report were to be the opinion of the auditor on the business which can be of several types stating the condition and the data sufficiency of the report. When an adverse or qualified opinion is given by the auditor then all the reasons which led to the decision should be mentioned along with the report on insufficiency of any evidence. The determining of the key audit matters by the auditor is very necessary and it states that the matters most significance out of all the matters should be chosen, matters should be of the current year, and the matters which were the key matters should not be included in the report unless they are also present in the current year. The matters which are of significance to the auditor can be firstly performing the actions according to the risk assessment of the company and the higher the risk the better and higher quality evidence and in more quantity is required, matters that are challenging to the auditors and the matters which require a high level of assessment are some matters of more significance. Lessons from the event The success of the audit depends on its quality to determine the key areas of communication in the financial reports along with forming an opinion about the fullness of the financial reports of a company. The learning which all of us can take from the event can be that the price that we usually pay for the stocks we buy really matters because as seen in this case we could see that the markets went down drastically before the event in 2007 and it nearly went 57% down but if we would have invested when the people were taking their money away from markets fearfully we would have earned around 270% returns. One should never buy and keep all the shares of the same kind or of the same sector unlike 2000s when the internet stocks were eroded this time the shares that got affected were of financial giants and these companies were so big that there numbers affected the global markets directly and even there stocks were used in many retirement plans but now in the current from the 2011 the price of the financial stocks started to go up and make profits nearly doubling its value in the span of three years. Bow having the heart of a bull would have worked in this case because what happened in the circumstance was that people took around $500 billion out of the market in the fair of losing money but if they would have hold the stocks till date all of them gained around 230% till the market started facing bulls in 2009. People mostly consider the blue chip stocks as the stocks which can be invested in because they are the stable and slow growing stocks but the crisis showed that there are no shar es which are volatile and that we should always treat the stocks as they are which is volatile and nearly unpredictable. Even the dividends were unsure of because at the time of crisis when the financial stocks started facing such problems they even lowered the amount of dividends to keep them financially safe. All we could say after the event was that the markets closed at all time high but that was of no help to the people who had to quit some five years ago and the reason behind was the losses that they made because a portfolio has the maximum chance of earning at time when it is new and in the starting years of the portfolio investment. So in learning something from the event taking risks are very important to earn profits but the risk management and profile should be kept low in as to trade more safely. Summary: This assignment took us through the history of Lehman brothers to the failure and all the reasons that led to the failure. ASA701 is also explained further in brief so that an idea can be taken out about that. The major crisis which led to the failure and how the negligence of the system led to the biggest bankruptcy event in the history of U.S and the lessons which were learned by the institutions globally affected the public indirectly. The global downfall and the chain reaction which made the happening of one event after another gave the world a good lesson about what financial markets can be. References: ASA 701, (2015) Communicating Key Audit Matters in the Independent Auditors Report, Retrieved from https://www.auasb.gov.au/admin/file/content102/c3/ASA_701_2015.pdf Indiviglio D, (2010), 4 Reasons Why Lehman Failed, Retrieved from https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2010/09/4-reasons-why-lehman-failed/62588/ Arcy C, (2009), Why Lehman Brothers collapsed, Retrieved from https://www.lovemoney.com/news/3909/why-lehman-brothers-collapsed Investopedia, (2017), Case Study: The Collapse of Lehman Brothers, Retrieved from https://www.investopedia.com/articles/economics/09/lehman-brothers-collapse.asp Pozen R. C., (2009), Two Lessons from Lehman, Retrieved from https://hbr.org/2009/09/learning-from-lehman

Medicinal Militarization

Table of Contents Introduction Kinds of Militarization Militarizing the Body Militarizing the Population Militarizing the Inner Space Conclusion References Introduction Triumph of the Will is one of the earliest propaganda firms that were produced in 1935 by Leni Riefenstahl. It is a chronicle of the Nazi Party Congress in 1934, which took place in Nuremberg in Germany. According to Foucault (2012), the film was seen as a deliberate attempt by the Nazi government to manipulate the German society by making some of their propaganda be acceptable.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Medicinal Militarization – Triumph of the Will specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Adolf Hitler had just taken over the leadership of the country in the previous year, and due to his ambitious nature, he was keen on implanting the manifesto of the Nazi Party. The speeches given by Adolf Hitler, his senior military generals, and senio r members of the party show the desire to gain absolute power. Adolf Hitler was elected to the office through a democratic vote. However, the movie presents him as a military leader who is keen on redefining his position as both a military and civilian ruler. The declaration by Hitler that Nazi party and state is a clear indication of the interest of a democratically elected leader to use absolute power with the help of the military apparatus. In this paper, the researcher aims at identifying the types of militarization as presented in this power. Kinds of Militarization In this film, there is a deliberate attempt by the political leadership of this country to militarize the society. According to Orr (2009), the Triumph of the Will is one of the best films that show the ambition of Adolf Hitler beyond the borders of Germany. This scholar says that the film presents various kinds of militarization at various stages. Militarizing the Body Militarization of the body is presented at ear ly stages of the films by the pseudo-military drills. Adolf Hitler is presented as the savior of this society, and for him to save the society he needs the services of the able-bodied men who could engage in military battles. Through his inspiration, young people are seen to join the military and engage in military drills in readiness to serve their country. As shown in this film, it is not possible to win a war without proper preparation. The volunteers are taken through early stages of military training where they try to learn the basics about military. They learn how to use guns while in the battlefield. Given that they are not trained soldiers, they use spades as symbols of guns that they will use when they engage in warfare. The actual militarization of the body is seen on the third day of the film.  At this stage, it is apparent that the main theme in the film is how to make the Germans ready for a possible outbreak of war. On this day, Adolf Hitler starts his morning activi ties by addressing youths in militaristic terms and informing them that they have to harden themselves in readiness for war.Advertising Looking for essay on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More A military pass and the armored vehicles with highly skilled military officers demonstrate the effort that the Nazi Party had to ensure that the targeted group had all the military trainings. Militarization of the body is best demonstrated when a large number of youths join the military training camps to learn how to use various forms of guns and other heavy artillery. The training involves enduring pain and spending long hours in the field learning how to engage in a battle. The conviction of the trainers and trainees clearly hints at a possible target that should be attacked once the military training was successful. Militarizing the Population According to Maguire (2010), although Adolf Hitler was one of the world’s worst dictators, he knew that real power lies with the people. He was, therefore, very keen on engaging the population in all his militaristic activities. This is seen in this film when he engages actively with the public. Over 700,000 people attend the first public forum that is organized for Hitler. Most of these people are youths who are not pleased by the current state of affairs in this country. They have attended the gathering hoping that the new leader will bring a lasting solution to the problem. Hitler takes advantage of this high expectation to offer a solution that is militaristic in nature. He ignores the possibility of addressing the problems that Germany has with the international community through dialogue. Instead, he hands over the duty of liberating Germany to Germans themselves.  Militarization of the population starts when Hitler makes a successful effort to unite the Germans against what he describes as a common enemy. His ability to evoke emotions and to make his a udience develop a feeling that they have a common destiny plays an important role in the militarization of population. This film demonstrates that Hitler and the Nazi party were keen on having a united population that is ready for war before engaging in any militaristic expedition. In his speeches, Hitler blames people he refers to as traitors for failing to achieve success in the World War 1. He does not rule out the possibility of another World War, but he is keen on ensuring that this time round Germany comes out as the winner, unlike in the previous occasions. To do this, it is demonstrated in the film that he needs the population. This population could only go to war if they are militarized. This militarization is what Adolf Hitler was keen on doing as shown in this film.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Medicinal Militarization – Triumph of the Will specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Militarizing the I nner Space This film best demonstrates the militarization of the inner space. When Adolf Hitler came to power, German was under a heavy yolk placed on it by the international community when it was accused of causing the First World War. The society was not happy with this verdict, but they had no option other than paying the fine. Adolf Hitler came to power through a heavy expectation that he would change the state of affairs for the better. In this film, Adolf Hitler is demonstrated as a leader who was determined to meet the expectations of the society and deliver them from the yolk placed on it by the international society. As shown in this film, delivering the nation could not be done through a peaceful engagement. The previous leaders had tried this approach but failed. It was time to use other alternatives, and to Hitler, military engagement was the only way out of this problem. However, engaging in a war was not a simple affair of ordering soldiers to the battlefield. Before g oing to the war, there was a need to get the support of the society. The German people had to develop an urge to go to the war for the sake of liberating the country. This could only be achieved through propaganda.  Militarization of the mind starts on the third day of the film at a youth rally that is attended by Hitler and his top party officials. The party officials are allowed to engage the youths in a discussion on how the country can be liberated. These officials are very critical of the current affairs of the country, and paint a picture of Adolf Hitler being the only possible savior that could address the problem for the society. They prepare a basis upon which Hitler can base is propaganda to the youths. True enough, Hitler comes out to address the youth gathered to meet the German ‘savior’. The ‘savior’ seizes this opportunity to militarize the minds of the youth at this rally. He recounts the suffering that Germans have to undergo because of th e fearful leadership that governed the country before him. He tells the youth that the country is being treated as a Third World Country by nations that could not match its military capabilities. He then tells the youth that the solution lies on them. They had to say to the current state of affairs. He tells them of the superiority of the German race that is being trampled upon by weaker nations simply because the country was not ready to go to war.  The message of Adolf Hitler to an audience of about 700,000 people seems to generate serious impacts among his audience, especially the youths (Latour, 2012). Hitler was keen on provoking their emotions.Advertising Looking for essay on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More He tells the audience how superior the Germans are to any other race that exists in the world. Hitler is very passionate about his message to the Germans. He tells the gathering that a time had come to liberate the nation. He says that the power rests with the people, and the youths had to make a decision about what they want in their own society. Hitler knew that militarization of the mind was the best approach that he could use to encourage the Germans to prepare for another war that will help it liberate itself from the burden placed on it by the League of Nations. The cheers from his audience and the kind of reactions from the youth clearly demonstrate the he succeeded in militarizing the minds of his audience. He captured their inner space, and evoked a strong urge to go to war. He made them feel that they could easily win a war if they remained focused and determined to this course. He lived up to the expectations of a true savior who came to liberate his people (Lande, 2011). The society believed in him, and was determined to walk with him on the path towards liberation. Conclusion Triumph of the Will is one of the German’s earliest propaganda films. The film portrays Adolf Hitler, through is Nazi Party, as the savior that German has been waiting for to liberate it from the injustice it suffered after the end of World War 1. Hitler is preparing the country for a possible military engagement with the international community. He militarizes the body, the population, and most importantly the inner space of the Germans in readiness for war. He succeeds in his militarization process based on the responses from the audience as shown in this film. References Foucault, Michel. 2012. Docile Bodies In Discipline and Punish, excerpts. New York: Vintage. Lande, Brian. 2011. Breathing like a soldier In Sociological Review. New York: Cengage. Latour, Bruno. 2012. Give me a laboratory and I will raise the world. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Maguire, Mark. 2 010. Biopower, Racialization and new Security Technology. New Jersey: Wiley. Orr, Jackie. 2009. The Militarization of Inner Space In Critical Sociology. London: McMillan This essay on Medicinal Militarization – Triumph of the Will was written and submitted by user Kaylynn C. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Healthcare Professional Regulation and Criminal Liability Essays

Healthcare Professional Regulation and Criminal Liability Essays Healthcare Professional Regulation and Criminal Liability Paper Healthcare Professional Regulation and Criminal Liability Paper Research has shown that the provision of health care services often fail because the general public is not completely aware of the kind of the services that are offered by the health care professionals. At the same time, they are not aware of the statutes that regulate the conduct of the health care providers. Due to this, the paper will seek to provide an overview of the complaint process, explore the role of healthcare regulatory agencies and will identify potential criminal liability in healthcare. Finally, the paper will provide the procedure to be followed when one is a victim of professional misconduct in the healthcare system. To be specific, the essay will focus on the criminal liability that pertains to the nurses in the United States specifically the State of Iowa. Accreditation, registration, licensing and certification Each jurisdiction has its own statutes in regards to licensing, certification and registration of nurses. For one to be registered as a nurse in the United States one must have undergone through a credible education system. For instance, it is a requirement that one should undergo a hospital based diploma program which often lasts for a period of there years. In this particular program, the students are supposed to undertake classes in areas like microbiology and nutrition before proceeding to some intensive nursing classes. However, the diploma program is considered to be an outdated method to gain access to the nursing practice. An alternative to the diploma program is to obtain an associate degree in nursing. This is normally a two year course but it has now been overtaken by the four year degree program in the Bachelor of Science in Nursing (BSN). BSN is mostly preferred due to the fact that it has a more hands on approach which creates room for more research into the nursing practice (Walsh. et al, 2006). After completion of any of the above educational programs one will have to go through some licensing examination which is referenced as NCLEX-RN. This is the minimum competency that is globally acceptable. However, critics of this system feel that there is need to ensure that the BSN is the minimum competency to be a registered nurse. However, even after acquiring the minimum competency as a practicing nurse your scope of practice is normally governed by the Nurse Practice Act of the State which differ form one state to another. It is normally the obligation of the state board of nursing to come up with laws .Normally, the scope of one in the nursing practice is governed the level of education (Joseph, 2002). For instance, a registered nurse has a wider scope than that of a vocational nurse. Areas of potential criminal liability On numerous occasions registered nurses often find themselves with no option other than to walk the tight rope. This is normally the case because they are frequent victims of criminal liability. For instance, a HIV victim may claim that his or her source of infection was through a blood transfusion which was administered by a nurse. The IOWA CODE OF 2002 clearly states if the nurse does the transmission knowing that the blood is infected the she will bear the civil liability. However, the IOWA CODE provides that the complainant must provide prove of transmission and show that the nurse knew that the blood was infected (Lockwood, 2009). Another area that exposes the registered nurses to criminal liability arises when the nurses are administering the vaccines. Worth noting is the fact that, most of the vaccines have no prior prescription form the doctors. In such cases, the nurses do act against Article 28 of the Physicians act. However, this is no longer a big issue to the nurses because of the recent amendment of the Article 4 of the Communicable Disease Control Act. The act provides that registered nurses shall not be prosecuted for violation of Article 28 whenever they are administering vaccines. However, but this dose not guarantee immunity to the nurses whenever they are involved in some malicious malpractice as provided by the law. In addition, nurses can also be liable for criminal liability whenever they collaborate with a pharmacist in the substitution of generic drugs with the recommended brand name drugs. This is normally the case when the pharmacist prepares a reimbursement claim which will in turn be shared between the two. Nurses can also be liable for criminal liability whenever they deliver their duties negligently. In such cases the complainant must prove that he or she suffered loss and the nurses owed him or her duty of care.

African American Culture Essay Example for Free (#4)

African American Culture Essay ? Although slavery greatly restricted the ability of Africans in America to practice their cultural traditions, many practices, values and beliefs survived and over time have incorporated elements of European American culture. There are even certain facets of African American culture that were brought into being or made more prominent as a result of slavery; an example of this is how drumming became used as a means of communication and establishing a community identity during that time. The result is a dynamic, creative culture that has had and continues to have a profound impact on mainstream American culture and on world culture as well. After Emancipation, these uniquely African American traditions continued to grow. They developed into distinctive traditions in music, art, literature, religion, food, holidays, amongst others. While for some time sociologists, such as Gunnar Myrdal and Patrick Moynihan, believed that African Americans had lost most cultural ties with Africa, anthropological field research by Melville Hersovits and others demonstrated that there is a continuum of African traditions among Africans in the New World from the West Indies to the United States. The greatest influence of African cultural practices on European cultures is found below the Mason-Dixon in the southeastern United States, especially in the Carolinas among the Gullah people and in Louisiana. African American culture often developed separately from mainstream American culture because of African Americans’ desire to practice their own traditions, as well as the persistence of racial segregation in America. Consequently African American culture has become a significant part of American culture and yet, at the same time, remains a distinct culture apart from it. History From the earliest days of slavery, slave owners sought to exercise control over their slaves by attempting to strip them of their African culture. The physical isolation and societal marginalization of African slaves and, later, of their free progeny, however, actually facilitated the retention of significant elements of traditional culture among Africans in the New World generally, and in the U. S. in particular. Slave owners deliberately tried to repress political organization in order to deal with the many slave rebellions that took place in the southern United States, Brazil, Haiti, and the Dutch Guyanas. African cultures,slavery,slave rebellions,and the civil rights movements(circa 1800s-160s)have shaped African American religious, familial, political and economic behaviors. The imprint of Africa is evident in myriad ways, in politics, economics, language, music, hairstyles, fashion, dance, religion and worldview, and food preparation methods. In the United States, the very legislation that was designed to strip slaves of culture and deny them education served in many ways to strengthen it. In turn, African American culture has had a pervasive, transformative impact on myriad elements of mainstream American culture, among them language, music, dance, religion, cuisine, and agriculture. This process of mutual creative exchange is called creolization. Over time, the culture of African slaves and their descendants has been ubiquitous in its impact on not only the dominant American culture, but on world culture as well. Oral tradition Slaveholders limited or prohibited education of enslaved African Americans because they believed it might lead to revolts or escape plans. Hence, African-based oral traditions became the primary means of preserving history, morals, and other cultural information among the people. This was consistent with the griot practices of oral history in many African and other cultures that did not rely on the written word. Many of these cultural elements have been passed from generation to generation through storytelling. The folktales provided African Americans the opportunity to inspire and educate one another. Examples of African American folktales include trickster tales of Br’er Rabbit and heroic tales such as that of John Henry. The Uncle Remus stories by Joel Chandler Harris helped to bring African American folk tales into mainstream adoption. Harris did not appreciate the complexity of the stories nor their potential for a lasting impact on society. Characteristics of the African American oral tradition present themselves in a number of forms. African American preachers tend to perform rather than simply speak. The emotion of the subject is carried through the speaker’s tone, volume, and movement, which tend to mirror the rising action, climax, and descending action of the sermon. Often song, dance, verse and structured pauses are placed throughout the sermon. Techniques such as call-and-response are used to bring the audience into the presentation. In direct contrast to recent tradition in other American and Western cultures, it is an acceptable and common audience reaction to interrupt and affirm the speaker. Spoken word is another example of how the African American oral tradition influences modern American popular culture. Spoken word artists employ the same techniques as African American preachers including movement, rhythm, and audience participation. Rap music from the 1980’s and beyond has been seen as an extension of oral culture. Harlem Renaissance [pic] Zora Neale Hurston was a prominent literary figure during the Harlem Renaissance. Main article: Harlem Renaissance The first major public recognition of African American culture occurred during the Harlem Renaissance. In the 1920s and 1930s, African American music, literature, and art gained wide notice. Authors such as Zora Neale Hurston and Nella Larsen and poets such as Langston Hughes, Claude McKay, and Countee Cullen wrote works describing the African American experience. Jazz, swing, blues and other musical forms entered American popular music. African American artists such as William H. Johnson and Palmer Hayden created unique works of art featuring African Americans. The Harlem Renaissance was also a time of increased political involvement for African Americans. Among the notable African American political movements founded in the early 20th century are the United Negro Improvement Association and the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. The Nation of Islam, a notable Islamic religious movement, also began in the early 1930s. African American cultural movement The Black Power movement of the 1960s and 1970s followed in the wake of the non-violent American Civil Rights Movement. The movement promoted racial pride and ethnic cohesion in contrast to the focus on integration of the Civil Rights Movement, and adopted a more militant posture in the face of racism. It also inspired a new renaissance in African American literary and artistic expression generally referred to as the African American or â€Å"Black Arts Movement. The works of popular recording artists such as Nina Simone (Young, Gifted and Black) and The Impressions (Keep On Pushin’), as well as the poetry, fine arts and literature of the time, shaped and reflected the growing racial and political consciousness. Among the most prominent writers of the African American Arts Movement were poet Nikki Giovanni; poet and publisher Don L. Lee, who later becam e known as Haki Madhubuti; poet and playwright Leroi Jones, later known as Amiri Baraka; and Sonia Sanchez. Other influential writers were Ed Bullins, Dudley Randall, Mari Evans, June Jordan, Larry Neal and Ahmos Zu-Bolton. Another major aspect of the African American Arts Movement was the infusion of the African aesthetic, a return to a collective cultural sensibility and ethnic pride that was much in evidence during the Harlem Renaissance and in the celebration of Negritude among the artistic and literary circles in the U. S. , Caribbean and the African continent nearly four decades earlier: the idea that â€Å"black is beautiful. † During this time, there was a resurgence of interest in, and an embrace of, elements of African culture within African American culture that had been suppressed or devalued to conform to Eurocentric America. Natural hairstyles, such as the afro, and African clothing, such as the dashiki, gained popularity. More importantly, the African American aesthetic encouraged personal pride and political awareness among African Americans. Music [pic] Men playing the djembe, a traditional West African drum adopted into African American and American culture. The bags and the clothing of the man on the right are printed with traditional kente cloth patterns. African American music is rooted in the typically polyrhythmic music of the ethnic groups of Africa, specifically those in the Western, Sahelean, and Sub-Saharan regions. African oral traditions, nurtured in slavery, encouraged the use of music to pass on history, teach lessons, ease suffering, and relay messages. The African pedigree of African American music is evident in some common elements: call and response, syncopation, percussion, improvisation, swung notes, blue notes, the use of falsetto, melisma, and complex multi-part harmony. During slavery, Africans in America blended traditional European hymns with African elements to create spirituals. Many African Americans sing Lift Ev’ry Voice and Sing in addition to the American national anthem, The Star-Spangled Banner, or in lieu of it. Written by James Weldon Johnson and John Rosamond Johnson in 1900 to be performed for the birthday of Abraham Lincoln, the song was, and continues to be, a popular way for African Americans to recall past struggles and express ethnic solidarity, faith and hope for the future. The song was adopted as the â€Å"Negro National Anthem† by the NAACP in 1919. African American children are taught the song at school, church or by their families. Lift Ev’ry Voice and Sing traditionally is sung immediately following, or instead of, The Star-Spangled Banner at events hosted by African American churches, schools, and other organizations. In the 1800s, as the result of the blackface minstrel show, African American music entered mainstream American society. By the early twentieth century, several musical forms with origins in the African American community had transformed American popular music. Aided by the technological innovations of radio and phonograph records, ragtime, jazz, blues, and swing also became popular overseas, and the 1920s became known as the Jazz Age. The early 20th century also saw the creation of the first African American Broadway shows, films such as King Vidor’s Hallelujah! and operas such as George Gershwin’s Porgy and Bess. Rock and roll, doo wop, soul, and R;B developed in the mid 20th century. These genres became very popular in white audiences and were influences for other genres such as surf. The dozens, an urban African American tradition of using rhyming slang to put down your enemies (or friends) developed through the smart-ass street jive of the early Seventies into a new form of music. In the South Bronx, the half speaking, half singing rhythmic street talk of ‘rapping’ grew into the hugely successful cultural force known as Hip Hop. Hip Hop would become a multicultural movement. However, it is still important to many African Americans. The African American Cultural Movement of the 1960s and 1970s also fueled the growth of funk and later hip-hop forms such as rap, hip house, new jack swing and go go. African American music has experienced far more widespread acceptance in American popular music in the 21st century than ever before. In addition to continuing to develop newer musical forms, modern artists have also started a rebirth of older genres in the form of genres such as neo soul and modern funk-inspired groups. Dance [pic] The Cakewalk was the first African American dance to gain widespread popularity in the United States. [pic] African American dance, like other aspects of African American culture, finds its earliest roots in the dances of the hundreds of African ethnic groups that made up African slaves in the Americas as well as influences from European sources in the United States. Dance in the African tradition, and thus in the tradition of slaves, was a part of both every day life and special occasions. Many of these traditions such as get down, ring shouts, and other elements of African body language survive as elements of modern dance. In the 1800s, African American dance began to appear in minstrel shows. These shows often presented African Americans as caricatures for ridicule to large audiences. The first African American dance to become popular with White dancers was the cakewalk in 1891. Later dances to follow in this tradition include the Charleston, the Lindy Hop, and the Jitterbug. During the Harlem Renaissance, all African American Broadway shows such as Shuffle Along helped to establish and legitimize African American dancers. African American dance forms such as tap, a combination of African and European influences, gained widespread popularity thanks to dancers such as Bill Robinson and were used by leading White choreographers who often hired African American dancers. Contemporary African American dance is descended from these earlier forms and also draws influence from African and Caribbean dance forms. Groups such as the Alvin Ailey American Dance Theater have continued to contribute to the growth of this form. Modern popular dance in America is also greatly influenced by African American dance. American popular dance has also drawn many influences from African American dance most notably in the hip hop genre. Art [pic] Sand Dunes at Sunset, Atlantic City by Henry Ossawa Tanner 1859-1937 From its early origins in slave communities, through the end of the twentieth century, African-American art has made a vital contribution to the art of the United States. During the period between the 1600s and the early 1800s, art took the form of small drums, quilts, wrought-iron figures and ceramic vessels in the southern United States. These artifacts have similarities with comparable crafts in West and Central Africa. In contrast, African American artisans like the New England–based engraver Scipio Moorhead and the Baltimore portrait painter Joshua Johnson created art that was conceived in a thoroughly western European fashion. During the 1800s, Harriet Powers made quilts in rural Georgia, United States that are now considered among the finest examples of nineteenth-century Southern quilting. Later in the 20th century, the women of Gee’s Bend developed a distinctive, bold, and sophisticated quilting style based on traditional African American quilts with a geometric simplicity that developed separately but was like that of Amish quilts and modern art. After the American Civil War, museums and galleries began more frequently to display the work of African American artists. Cultural expression in mainstream venues was still limited by the dominant European aesthetic and by racial prejudice. To increase the visibility of their work, many African American artists traveled to Europe where they had greater freedom. It was not until the Harlem Renaissance that more whites began to pay attention to African American art in America. [pic] Kara Walker, Cut, Cut paper and adhesive on wall, Brent Sikkema NYC. During the 1920s, artists such as Raymond Barthe, Aaron Douglas, Augusta Savage, and photographer James Van Der Zee became well known for their work. During the Great Depression, new opportunities arose for these and other African American artists under the WPA. In later years, other programs and institutions, such as the New York City-based Harmon Foundation, helped to foster African American artistic talent. Augusta Savage, Elizabeth Catlett, Lois Mailou Jones, Romare Bearden, Jacob Lawrence and others exhibited in museums and juried art shows, and built reputations and followings for themselves. In the 1950s and 1960s, there were very few widely accepted African American artists. Despite this, The Highwaymen, a loose association of 27 African American artists from Ft. Pierce, Florida, created idyllic, quickly realized images of the Florida landscape and peddled some 50,000 of them from the trunks of their cars. They sold their art directly to the public rather than through galleries and art agents, thus receiving the name â€Å"The Highwaymen†. Rediscovered in the mid-1990s, today they are recognized as an important part of American folk history. Their artwork is widely collected by enthusiasts and original pieces can easily fetch thousands of dollars in auctions and sales. The Black Arts Movement of the 1960s and 1970s was another period of resurgent interest in African American art. During this period, several African-American artists gained national prominence, among them Lou Stovall, Ed Love, Charles White, and Jeff Donaldson. Donaldson and a group of African-American artists formed the Afrocentric collective AFRICOBRA, which remains in existence today. The sculptor Martin Puryear, whose work has been acclaimed for years, is being honored with a 30-year retrospective of his work at the Museum of Modern Art in New York starting November 2007. Notable contemporary African American artists include David Hammons, Eugene J. Martin, Charles Tolliver, and Kara Walker. Literature [pic] Langston Hughes, a notable African American poet of the Harlem Renaissance. African American literature has its roots in the oral traditions of African slaves in America. The slaves used stories and fables in much the same way as they used music. These stories influenced the earliest African American writers and poets in the 18thcentury such as Phillis Wheatley and Olaudah Equiano. These authors reached early high points by telling slave narratives. During the early 20th century Harlem Renaissance, numerous authors and poets, such as Langston Hughes, W. E. B. Dubois, and Booker T. Washington, grappled with how to respond to discrimination in America. Authors during the Civil Rights era, such as Richard Wright, James Baldwin and Gwendolyn Brooks wrote about issues of racial segregation, oppression and other aspects of African American life. This tradition continues today with authors who have been accepted as an integral part of American literature, with works such as Roots: The Saga of an American Family by Alex Haley, The Color Purple by Alice Walker, and Beloved by Nobel Prize-winning Toni Morrison, and series by Octavia Butler and Walter Mosley that have achieved both best-selling and/or award-winning status. Museums The African American Museum Movement emerged during the 1950s and 1960s to preserve the heritage of the African American experience and to ensure its proper interpretation in American history. Museums devoted to African American history are found in many African American neighborhoods. Institutions such as the African American Museum and Library at Oakland and The African American Museum in Cleveland were created by African Americans to teach and investigate cultural history that, until recent decades was primarily preserved trough oral traditions. Language Generations of hardships imposed on the African American community created distinctive language patterns. Slave owners often intentionally mixed people who spoke different African languages to discourage communication in any language other than English. This, combined with prohibitions against education, led to the development of pidgins, simplified mixtures of two or more languages that speakers of different languages could use to communicate. Examples of pidgins that became fully developed languages include Creole, common to Haiti,and Gullah, common to the Sea Islands off the coast of South Carolina and Georgia. African American Vernacular English is a type variety (dialect, ethnolect and sociolect) of the American English language closely associated with the speech of but not exclusive to African Americans. While AAVE is academically considered a legitimate dialect because of its logical structure, some of both Caucasians and African Americans consider it slang or the result of a poor command of Standard American English. Inner city African American children who are isolated by speaking only AAVE have more difficulty with standardized testing and, after school, moving to the mainstream world for work. It is common for many speakers of AAVE to code switch between AAVE and Standard American English depending on the setting. Fashion and aesthetics [pic] A man weaving kente cloth in Ghana. Attire The cultural explosion of the 1960s saw the incorporation of surviving cultural dress with elements from modern fashion and West African traditional clothing to create a uniquely African American traditional style. Kente cloth is the best known African textile. These festive woven patterns, which exist in numerous varieties, were originally made by the Ashanti and Ewe peoples of Ghana and Togo. Kente fabric also appears in a number of Western style fashions ranging from casual t-shirts to formal bow ties and cummerbunds. Kente strips are often sewn into liturgical and cademic robes or worn as stoles. Since the Black Arts Movement, traditional African clothing has been popular amongst African Americans for both formal and informal occasions. Another common aspect of fashion in African American culture involves the appropriate dress for worship in the Black church. It is expected in most churches that an individual should present their best appearance for worship. African Americ an women in particular are known for wearing vibrant dresses and suits. An interpretation of a passage from the Christian Bible, â€Å"†¦ very woman who prays or prophesies with her head uncovered dishonors her head†¦ â€Å", has led to the tradition of wearing elaborate Sunday hats, sometimes known as â€Å"crowns. † Hair Hair styling in African American culture is greatly varied. African American hair is typically composed of tightly coiled curls. The predominant styles for women involve the straightening of the hair through the application of heat or chemical processes. These treatments form the base for the most commonly socially acceptable hairstyles in the United States. Alternatively, the predominant and most socially acceptable practice for men is to leave one’s hair natural. Often, as men age and begin to lose their hair, the hair is either closely cropped, or the head is shaved completely free of hair. However, since the 1960s, natural hairstyles, such as the afro, braids, and dreadlocks, have been growing in popularity. Although the association with radical political movements and their vast difference from mainstream Western hairstyles, the styles have not yet attained widespread social acceptance. Maintaining facial hair is more prevalent among African American men than in other male populations in the U. S. In fact, the soul patch is so named because African American men, particularly jazz musicians, popularized the style. The preference for facial hair among African American men is due partly to personal taste, but because they are more prone than other ethnic groups to develop a condition known as pseudofolliculitis barbae, commonly referred to as razor bumps, many prefer not to shave. Body image The European aesthetic and attendant mainstream concepts of beauty are often at odds with the African body form. Because of this, African American women often find themselves under pressure to conform to European standards of beauty. Still, there are individuals and groups who are working towards raising the standing of the African aesthetic among African Americans and internationally as well. This includes efforts toward promoting as models those with clearly defined African features; the mainstreaming of natural hairstyles; and, in women, fuller, more voluptuous body types. Religion While African Americans practice a number of religions, Protestant Christianity is by far the most popular. Additionally, 14% of Muslims in the United States and Canada are African American. Christianity [pic] A river baptism in New Bern, North Carolina near the turn of the 20th century. The religious institutions of African American Christians commonly are referred tocollectively as the black church. During slavery, many slaves were stripped of their African belief systems and typically denied free religious practice. Slaves managed, however, to hang on to some practices by integrating them into Christian worship in secret meetings. These practices, including dance, shouts, African rhythms, and enthusiastic singing, remain a large part of worship in the African American church. African American churches taught that all people were equal in God’s eyes and viewed the doctrine of obedience to one’s master taught in white churches as hypocritical. Instead the African American church focused on the message of equality and hopes for a better future. Before and after emancipation, racial segregation in America prompted the development of organized African American denominations. The first of these was the AME Church founded by Richard Allen in 1787. An African American church is not necessarily a separate denomination. Several predominantly African American churches exist as members of predominantly white denominations. African American churches have served to provide African American people with leadership positions and opportunities to organize that were denied in mainstream American society. Because of this, African American pastors became the bridge between the African American and European American communities and thus played a crucial role in the American Civil Rights Movement. Like many Christians, African American Christians sometimes participate in or attend a Christmas play. Black Nativity by Langston Hughes is a re-telling of the classic Nativity story with gospel music. Productions can be found a African American theaters and churches all over the country. Islam [pic] A member of the Nation of Islam selling merchandise on a city street corner. Despite the popular assumption that the Nation represents all or most African American Muslims, less than 2% are members. Generations before the advent of the Atlantic slave trade, Islam was a thriving religion in West Africa due to its peaceful introduction via the lucrative trans-Saharan trade between prominent tribes in the southern Sahara and the Berbers to the North. In his attesting to this fact the West African scholar Cheikh Anta Diop explained: â€Å"The primary reason for the success of Islam in Black Africa†¦ onsequently stems from the fact that it was propagated peacefully at first by solitary Arabo-Berber travelers to certain Black kings and notables, who then spread it about them to those under their jurisdiction† Many first-generation slaves were often able to retain their Muslim identity, their descendants were not. Slaves were either forcibly converted to Christianity as was the case in the Catholic lands or were besieged with gross inconviences to their religious practice such as in the case of the Protestant American mainland. In the decades after slavery and particularly during the depression era, Islam reemerged in the form of highly visible and sometimes controversial heterodox movements in the African American community. The first of these of note was the Moorish Science Temple of America, founded by Noble Drew Ali. Ali had a profound influence on Wallace Fard, who later founded the Black nationalist Nation of Islam in 1930. Elijah Muhammad became head of the organization in 1934. Much like Malcolm X, who left the Nation of Islam in 1964, many African American Muslims now follow traditional Islam. A survey by the Council on American-Islamic Relations shows that 30% of Sunni Mosque attendees are African Americans. African American orthodox Muslims are often the victims of stereotypes, most notably the assumption that an African American Muslim is a member of the Nation of Islam. They are often viewed by the uneducated African-American community in general as less authentic than Muslims from the Middle East or South Asia while credibility is less of an issue with immigrant Muslims and Muslim world in general. Other religions Aside from Christianity and Islam, there are also African Americans who follow Judaism, Buddhism, and a number of other religions. The Black Hebrew Israelites are a collection of African American Jewish religious organizations. Among their varied teachings, they often include that African Americans are descended from the Biblical Hebrews (sometimes with the paradoxical claim that the Jewish people are not). There is a small but growing number of African Americans who participate in African traditional religions, such as Vodou and Santeria or Ifa and diasporic traditions like Rastafarianism. Many of them are immigrants or descendants of immigrants from the Caribbean and South America, where these are practiced. Because of religious practices, such as animal sacrifice, which are no longer common among American religions and are often legally prohibited, these groups may be viewed negatively and are sometimes the victims of harassment. Life events For most African Americans, the observance of life events follows the pattern of mainstream American culture. There are some traditions which are unique to African Americans. Some African Americans have created new rites of passage that are linked to African traditions. Pre-teen and teenage boys and girls take classes to prepare them for adulthood. They are typically taught spirituality, responsibility, and leadership. Most of these programs are modeled after traditional African ceremonies, with the focus largely on embracing African ideologies rather than specific rituals. To this day, some African American couples choose to â€Å"jump the broom† as a part of their wedding ceremony. Although the practice, which can be traced back to Ghana, fell out of favor in the African American community after the end of slavery, it has experienced a slight resurgence in recent years as some couples seek to reaffirm their African heritage. Funeral traditions tend to vary based on a number of factors, including religion and location, but there are a number of commonalities. Probably the most important part of death and dying in the African American culture is the gathering of family and friends. Either in the last days before death or shortly after death, typically any friends and family members that can be reached are notified. This gathering helps to provide spiritual and emotional support, as well as assistance in making decisions and accomplishing everyday tasks. The spirituality of death is very important in African American culture. A member of the clergy or members of the religious community, or both, are typically present with the family through the entire process. Death is often viewed as transitory rather than final. Many services are called homegoings, instead of funerals, based on the belief that the person is going home to the afterlife. The entire end of life process is generally treated as a celebration of life rather than a mourning of loss. This is most notably demonstrated in the New Orleans Jazz Funeral tradition where upbeat music, dancing, and food encourage those gathered to be happy and celebrate the homegoing of a beloved friend. Cuisine [pic] A traditional soul food dinner consisting of fried chicken, candied yams, collard greens, cornbread, and macaroni and cheese. The cultivation and use of many agricultural products in the United States, such as yams, peanuts, rice, okra, sorghum, grits, watermelon, indigo dyes, and cotton, can be traced to African influences. African American foods reflect creative esponses to racial and economic oppression and poverty. Under slavery, African Americans were not allowed to eat better cuts of meat, and after emancipation many often were too poor to afford them. Soul food, a hearty cuisine commonly associated with African Americans in the South (but also common to African Americans nationwide), makes creative use of inexpensive products procured through farming and subsistence hunting and fishing. Pig intestines are boiled and sometimes battered and fried to make chitterlings, also known as â€Å"chitlins. Ham hocks and neck bones provide seasoning to soups, beans and boiled greens (turnip greens, collard greens, and mustard greens). Other common foods, such as fried chicken and fish, macaroni and cheese, cornbread and hoppin’ john (black-eyed peas and rice) are prepared simply. When the African American population was considerably more rural than it generally is today, rabbit, possum, squirrel, and waterfowl were important additions to the diet. Many of these food traditions are especially predominant in many parts of the rural South. Traditionally prepared soul food is often high in fat, sodium and starch. Highly suited to the physically demanding lives of laborers, farmhands and rural lifestyles generally, it is now a contributing factor to obesity, heart disease, and diabetes in a population that has become increasingly more urban and sedentary. As a result, more health-conscious African-Americans are using alternative methods of preparation, eschewing trans fats in favor of natural vegetable oils and substituting smoked turkey for fatback and other, cured pork products; limiting the amount of refined sugar in desserts; and emphasizing the consumption of more fruits and vegetables than animal protein. There is some resistance to such changes, however, as they involve deviating from long culinary tradition. Holidays and observances [pic] A woman wearing traditional West African clothing lighting the candles on a kinara for a Kwanzaa celebration. As with other American racial and ethnic groups, African Americans observe ethnic holidays alongside traditional American holidays. Holidays observed in African American culture are not only observed by African Americans. The birthday of noted American civil rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr has been observed nationally since 1983. It is one of three federal holidays named for an individual. Black History Month is another example of another African American observance that has been adopted nationally. Black History Month is an attempt to focus attention on previously neglected aspects of the African American experience. It is observed during the month of February to coincide with the founding of the NAACP and the birthdays of Frederick Douglass, a prominent African American abolitionist, and Abraham Lincoln, the United States president who signed the Emancipation Proclamation. Less widely observed outside of the African American community is Emancipation Day. The nature and timing of the celebration vary regionally. It is most widely observed as Juneteenth, in recognition of the official reading of the Emancipation Proclamation on June 19, 1865 in Texas. Another holiday not widely observed outside of the African American community is the birthday of Malcolm X. The day is observed on May 19 in American cities with a significant African American population, including Washington, D. C.. One of the most noted African American holidays is Kwanzaa. Like Emancipation Day, it is not widely observed outside of the African American community, although it is growing in popularity within the community. African American scholar and activist â€Å"Maulana† Ron Karenga invented the festival of Kwanzaa in 1966, as an alternative to the increasing commercialization of Christmas. Derived from the harvest rituals of Africans, Kwanzaa is observed each year from December 26 through January 1. Participants in Kwanzaa celebrations affirm their African heritage and the importance of family and community by drinking from a unity cup; lighting red, black, and green candles; exchanging heritage symbols, such as African art; and recounting the lives of people who struggled for African and African American freedom. Names African American names are often drawn from the same language groups as other popular names found in the United States. The practice of adopting neo-African or Islamic names did not gain popularity until the late Civil Rights era. Efforts to recover African heritage inspired selection of names with deeper cultural significance. Prior to this, using African names was not practical for two reasons. First, many African Americans were several generations removed from the last ancestor to have an African name since slaves were often given European names. Second, a traditional American name helps an individual fit into American society. Another African American naming practice that predates the use of African names is the use of â€Å"made-up† names. In an attempt to create their own identity, growing numbers of African American parents, starting in the post-World War II era, began creating new names based on sounds they found pleasing such as Marquon, DaShawn, LaTasha, or Shandra. Family When slavery was practiced in the United States, it was common for families to be separated through sale. Even during slavery, however, African American families managed to maintain strong familial bonds. Free, African men and women, who managed to buy their own freedom by being hired out, who were emancipated, or who had escaped their masters, often worked long and hard to buy the members of their families who remained in bondage and send for them. Others, separated from blood kin, formed close bonds comprised of fictive kin; play relations, play aunts, cousins and the like. This practice, perhaps a holdover from African tradition, survived Emancipation, with non-blood family friends commonly accorded the status and titles of blood relations. This broader, more African concept of what constitutes family and community, and the deeply rooted respect for elders that is part of African traditional societies may be the genesis of the common use of the terms like â€Å"aunt†, â€Å"uncle†, â€Å"brother,† â€Å"sister†, â€Å"Mother† and â€Å"Mama† when addressing other African American people, some of whom may be complete strangers. Or, it could have arisen in the Christian church as a way of greeting fellow congregants and believers. Immediately after slavery, African American families struggled to reunite and rebuild what had been taken. As late as 1960, 78% of African American families were headed by married couples. This number steadily declined over the latter half of the 20th century. A number of factors, including attitudes towards education, gender roles, and poverty have created a situation where, for the first time since slavery, a majority of African American children live in a household with only one parent, typically the mother. These figures appear to indicate a weak African American nuclear family structure, especially within a large patriarchal society. This apparent weakness is balanced by mutual aid systems established by extended family members to provide emotional and economic support. Older family members pass on social and cultural traditions such as religion and manners to younger family members. In turn, the older family members are cared for by younger family members when they are unable to care for themselves. These relationships exist at all economic levels in the African American community, providing strength and support both to the African American family and the community. Politics and social issues Since the passing of the Voting Rights Act, African Americans are voting and being elected to public office in increasing numbers. As of January 2001 there were 9,101 African American elected officials in America. African Americans are overwhelmingly Democratic. Only 11% of African Americans voted for George W. Bush in the 2004 Presidential Election. Social issues such as racial profiling, the racial disparity in sentencing, higher rates of poverty, institutional racism, and lower access to health care are important to the African American community. While the divide on racial and fiscal issues has remained consistently wide for decades, seemingly indicating a wide social divide, African Americans tend to hold the same optimism and concern for America as Whites. In the case of many moral issues such as religion, and family values, African Americans tend to be more conservative than Whites. Another area where African Americans outstrip Whites in their conservatism is on the issue of homosexuality. Prominent leaders in the Black church have demonstrated against gay rights issues such as gay marriage. There are those within the community who take a more inclusive position most notably, the late Mrs. Coretta Scott King, and the Reverend Al Sharpton, who, when asked in 2003 whether he supported gay marriage, replied that he might as well have been asked if he supported black marriage or white marriage. Neighborhoods African American neighborhoods are types of ethnic enclaves found in many cities in the United States. The formation of African American neighborhoods is closely linked to the history of segregation in the United States, either through formal laws, or as a product of social norms. Despite this, African American neighborhoods have played an important role in the development of nearly all aspects of both African American culture and broader American culture. Due to segregated conditions and widespread poverty some African American neighborhoods in the United States have been called â€Å"ghettos. † The use of this term is controversial and, depending on the context, potentially offensive. Despite mainstream America’s use of the term â€Å"ghetto† to signify a poor urban area populated by ethnic minorities, those living in the area often used it to signify something positive. The African American ghettos did not always contain dilapidated houses and deteriorating projects, nor were all of its residents poverty-stricken. For many African Americans, the ghetto was â€Å"home† a place representing authentic blackness and a feeling, passion, or emotion derived from the rising above the struggle and suffering of being of African descent in America. Langston Hughes relays in the â€Å"Negro Ghetto† (1931) and â€Å"The Heart of Harlem† (1945): â€Å"The buildings in Harlem are brick and stone/And the streets are long and wide,/But Harlem’s much more than these alone,/Harlem is what’s inside. Playwright August Wilson used the term â€Å"ghetto† in Ma Rainey’s Black Bottom (1984) and Fences (1987), both of which draw upon the author’s experience growing up in the Hill district of Pittsburgh, an African American ghetto. Although African American neighborhoods may suffer from civic disinvestment, with lower q uality schools, less effective policing and fire protection. There are institutions such as churches and museums and political organizations that help to improve the physical and social capital of African American neighborhoods. In African American neighborhoods the churches may be important sources of social cohesion. For some African Americans the kind spirituality learned through these churches works as a protective factor against the corrosive forces of racism. Museums devoted to African American history are also found in many African American neighborhoods. Many African American neighborhoods are located in inner cities, These are the mostly residential neighborhoods located closest to the central business district. The built environment is often row houses or brownstones, mixed with older single family homes that may be converted to multi family homes. In some areas there are larger apartment buildings. Shotgun houses are an important part of the built environment of some southern African American neighborhoods. The houses consist of three to five rooms in a row with no hallways. This African American house design is found in both rural and urban southern areas, mainly in African-American communities and neighborhoods. African American Culture. (2018, Nov 09).